Kowace ƙa'idar gwaji (Brinell, Rockwell, Vickers) tana da matakai na musamman ga abin da ake gwadawa.

Kowace ƙa'idar gwaji (Brinell, Rockwell, Vickers) tana da matakai na musamman ga abin da ake gwadawa.T-test na Rockwell yana da amfani don gwada bututu masu sirara ta hanyar yanke bututun tsawon tsayi da kuma duba bangon bututu ta diamita na ciki maimakon diamita na waje.
Yin odar bututu abu ne kamar zuwa wurin sayar da motoci da odar mota ko babbar mota.A yanzu akwai ɗimbin zaɓuɓɓuka waɗanda ke ba da damar masu siye su keɓance motar ta hanyoyi daban-daban - launuka na ciki da na waje, fakitin datsa, zaɓin salo na waje, zaɓin ƙarfin wutar lantarki, da tsarin sauti wanda ke da kyau kamar tsarin nishaɗin gida.Tare da duk waɗannan zaɓuɓɓuka, ƙila ba za ku gamsu da daidaitaccen motar da ba ta da ƙarfi.
Wannan ya shafi bututun ƙarfe.Yana da dubban zaɓuɓɓuka ko ƙayyadaddun bayanai.Baya ga girma, ƙayyadaddun ya ambaci kaddarorin sinadarai da kaddarorin injina da yawa kamar ƙaramin ƙarfin samar da amfanin ƙasa (MYS), ƙarfin ƙarfi na ƙarshe (UTS), da ƙaramar haɓakawa zuwa gazawa.Koyaya, da yawa a cikin masana'antar - injiniyoyi, wakilai masu siya, da masana'anta - suna amfani da gajeriyar hannun masana'antar kuma suna kira ga bututun walda mai “sauƙaƙa” kuma suna lissafin sifa ɗaya kawai: taurin.
Yi ƙoƙarin yin odar mota bisa ga halaye ɗaya ("Ina buƙatar mota mai watsawa ta atomatik"), kuma tare da mai siyarwa ba za ku yi nisa ba.Dole ne ya cika fom tare da zaɓuɓɓuka masu yawa.Wannan shi ne yanayin da bututun ƙarfe: don samun bututun da ya dace da aikace-aikacen, mai yin bututu yana buƙatar ƙarin bayani fiye da taurin.
Ta yaya taurin ya zama karbabbe madadin sauran kayan inji?Wataƙila ya fara ne da masu kera bututu.Saboda gwajin taurin yana da sauri, mai sauƙi, kuma yana buƙatar kayan aiki marasa tsada, masu siyar da bututu sukan yi amfani da gwajin taurin don kwatanta nau'ikan bututu guda biyu.Duk abin da suke buƙata don yin gwajin taurin shine bututu mai santsi da na'urar gwaji.
Taurin bututu yana da alaƙa da UTS kuma ka'idar babban yatsa (kashi ko kewayon kashi) yana da amfani don ƙididdige MYS, don haka yana da sauƙi a ga yadda gwajin taurin zai iya zama wakili mai dacewa ga sauran kaddarorin.
Bugu da kari, wasu gwaje-gwajen suna da matukar wahala.Yayin da gwajin taurin yana ɗaukar kusan minti ɗaya kawai akan injin guda ɗaya, MYS, UTS da gwaje-gwaje na elongation suna buƙatar shirye-shiryen samfuri da babban jari a cikin manyan kayan aikin dakin gwaje-gwaje.Idan aka kwatanta, ma'aikacin injin bututu yana kammala gwajin taurin cikin daƙiƙa, yayin da ƙwararren masanin ƙarfe ke yin gwajin juzu'i cikin sa'o'i kaɗan.Yin gwajin taurin ba shi da wahala.
Wannan ba yana nufin cewa masana'antun bututun injiniya ba sa amfani da gwajin taurin.Yana da lafiya a ce yawancin suna yin haka, amma tun da yake suna kimanta maimaita kayan aiki da sake fasalin kayan aiki a duk kayan aikin gwaji, suna sane da iyakokin gwajin.Yawancinsu suna amfani da shi don kimanta taurin bututu a matsayin wani ɓangare na tsarin masana'anta, amma ba sa amfani da shi don ƙididdige abubuwan bututun.Gwajin fasfo/fashi ne kawai.
Me yasa nake buƙatar sanin MYS, UTS da ƙaramar haɓakawa?Suna nuna aikin taro na bututu.
MYS ita ce ƙaramar ƙarfin da ke haifar da nakasu na dindindin na kayan.Idan aka yi kokarin lankwasa madaidaicin waya (kamar rataya) ka saki matsi, daya daga cikin abubuwa biyu zai faru: zai koma yadda yake (daidai) ko kuma ya tsaya lankwashe.Idan har yanzu madaidaiciya ne, to ba ku sami nasara akan MYS ba tukuna.Idan har yanzu yana lankwasa, kun rasa.
Yanzu ƙwace ƙarshen waya biyu tare da manne.Idan za ku iya karya waya cikin rabi, kun wuce UTS.Kuna ja shi da ƙarfi kuma kuna da waya guda biyu don nuna ƙoƙarin ku na ɗan adam.Idan ainihin tsawon waya ya kasance inci 5, kuma tsayin biyu bayan gazawar sun ƙara zuwa inci 6, wayar za ta shimfiɗa inch 1, ko 20%.Ana auna ainihin gwaje-gwajen tensile a cikin inci 2 na wurin hutu, amma komai - ra'ayin tashin hankali na layin yana kwatanta UTS.
Dole ne a yanke samfurori na micrograph na ƙarfe, a goge, a kwaɓe su tare da wani bayani mai rauni na acidic (yawanci nitric acid da barasa) don ganin hatsin.Ana amfani da girman girman 100x don bincika ƙwayar ƙarfe da ƙayyade girman su.
Taurin gwaji ne na yadda abu ke mayar da martani ga tasiri.Ka yi la'akari da cewa an sanya ɗan gajeren tsayin tubing a cikin vise tare da serrated jaws kuma girgiza don rufe vise.Baya ga daidaita bututun, vise jaws suna barin tambari a saman bututun.
Wannan shine yadda gwajin taurin ke aiki, amma ba shi da tsauri.Gwajin yana da girman tasiri mai sarrafawa da matsa lamba mai sarrafawa.Waɗannan sojojin suna lalata saman ƙasa, suna ƙirƙirar indentations ko indentations.Girman ko zurfin haƙora yana ƙayyade taurin ƙarfe.
Lokacin kimanta karfe, Brinell, Vickers da gwajin taurin Rockwell yawanci ana amfani da su.Kowannensu yana da nasa ma'auni, wasu kuma suna da hanyoyin gwaji da yawa kamar Rockwell A, B, C, da dai sauransu. Don bututun ƙarfe, ƙayyadaddun ASTM A513 na nufin gwajin Rockwell B (wanda aka gajarta da HRB ko RB).Gwajin Rockwell B yana auna bambancin ƙarfin shigar da ball na karfe inch 1⁄16 diamita zuwa karfe tsakanin farkon ɗaukan haske da babban nauyin 100 kgf.Sakamakon al'ada don daidaitaccen ƙarfe mai laushi shine HRB 60.
Masana kimiyyar kayan aiki sun san cewa taurin yana da alaƙa ta layi da UTS.Don haka, taurin da aka bayar yana annabta UTS.Hakazalika, mai yin bututu ya san cewa MYS da UTS suna da alaƙa.Don bututun walda, MYS yawanci 70% zuwa 85% UTS ne.Matsakaicin adadin ya dogara da tsarin samar da bututu.Taurin HRB 60 yayi daidai da UTS 60,000 fam a kowace inci murabba'i (PSI) da kusan 80% MYS, wanda shine 48,000 PSI.
Mafi yawan ƙayyadaddun bututu na yau da kullun don samarwa gabaɗaya shine matsakaicin taurin.Baya ga girman, injiniyoyi kuma suna da sha'awar tantance bututun juriya welded (ERW) a cikin kewayon aiki mai kyau, wanda zai iya haifar da zane-zanen sashi tare da yuwuwar matsakaicin taurin HRB 60. Wannan shawarar ita kaɗai ta haifar da adadin kaddarorin ƙarshen inji, harda taurin kanta.
Na farko, taurin HRB 60 ba ya gaya mana da yawa.Karatun HRB 60 lamba ce mara girma.Abubuwan da aka ƙididdige su a HRB 59 sun fi waɗanda aka gwada a HRB 60, kuma HRB 61 ya fi HRB 60 wahala, amma ta nawa?Ba za a iya ƙididdige shi kamar ƙara (aunawa a cikin decibels), juzu'i (aunawa cikin fam-ƙafa), saurin (aunawa da nisa da lokaci), ko UTS (aunawa cikin fam a kowace murabba'in inch).Karatun HRB 60 bai gaya mana takamaiman wani abu ba.Ita dukiya ce, ba ta zahiri ba.Na biyu, ƙudurin taurin kanta bai dace ba don tabbatar da maimaitawa ko haɓakawa.Ƙimar shafuka guda biyu akan samfurin, ko da wuraren gwajin suna kusa da juna, yawanci yana haifar da karatun tauri daban-daban.Yanayin gwaje-gwajen yana kara tsananta wannan matsalar.Bayan auna matsayi ɗaya, ba za a iya ɗaukar awo na biyu don duba sakamakon ba.Maimaita gwajin ba zai yiwu ba.
Wannan baya nufin ma'aunin taurin ba shi da daɗi.A zahiri, wannan kyakkyawan jagora ne ga kayan UTS, kuma gwaji ne mai sauri da sauƙi.Koyaya, duk wanda ke da hannu a cikin ma'anar, sayayya, da kera bututu yakamata ya san iyakokin su azaman siga na gwaji.
Saboda ba a fayyace bututun “na yau da kullun” ba, masu kera bututu yawanci sun rage shi zuwa nau'ikan karfe da bututu guda biyu da aka fi amfani da su kamar yadda aka ayyana a cikin ASTM A513:1008 da 1010 idan ya dace.Ko da bayan ban da duk sauran nau'ikan bututu, damar da za a iya samun kayan aikin injin waɗannan nau'ikan bututu guda biyu suna nan a buɗe.A gaskiya ma, waɗannan nau'ikan bututu suna da mafi girman kewayon kayan aikin injiniya na kowane nau'in bututu.
Alal misali, ana ɗaukar bututu mai laushi idan MYS yana da ƙananan kuma elongation yana da girma, wanda ke nufin cewa yana aiki mafi kyau dangane da shimfidawa, nakasawa, da nakasar dindindin fiye da bututu da aka bayyana a matsayin m, wanda yana da ƙananan MYS kuma yana da ƙananan elongation. ..Wannan yayi kama da bambance-bambancen da ke tsakanin waya mai laushi da waya mai wuya kamar masu rataye tufafi da rawar jiki.
Tsawaita kanta wani abu ne wanda ke da tasiri mai mahimmanci akan aikace-aikacen bututu mai mahimmanci.High elongation bututu iya jure mikewa;ƙananan elongation kayan sun fi karye don haka sun fi dacewa da gazawar gajiya mai bala'i.Koyaya, elongation baya da alaƙa kai tsaye da UTS, wanda shine kawai kayan injin da ke da alaƙa kai tsaye da taurin.
Me yasa bututu suka bambanta sosai a cikin kayan aikin injin su?Na farko, sinadarin sinadaran ya bambanta.Karfe shine ingantaccen bayani na ƙarfe da carbon, da sauran mahimman gami.Don sauƙi, za mu yi hulɗa da adadin carbon kawai.Ƙwayoyin zarra na carbon suna maye gurbin wasu daga cikin atom ɗin ƙarfe, suna ƙirƙirar tsarin crystalline na karfe.ASTM 1008 cikakken matakin farko ne tare da abun ciki na carbon daga 0% zuwa 0.10%.Sifili lamba ce ta musamman wacce ke ba da kaddarori na musamman a ƙarancin abun cikin carbon mai ƙarancin ƙarfi a cikin ƙarfe.ASTM 1010 yana bayyana abun ciki na carbon daga 0.08% zuwa 0.13%.Wadannan bambance-bambancen ba su da girma, amma sun isa su yi babban bambanci a wani wuri.
Abu na biyu, ana iya kera ko kera bututun karfe sannan a sarrafa su ta hanyoyin sarrafa abubuwa guda bakwai.ASTM A513 game da samar da bututun ERW ya lissafa iri bakwai:
Idan sinadarai na karfe da matakan kera bututu ba su shafi taurin karfe ba, to menene?Amsar wannan tambayar tana nufin yin nazari dalla-dalla dalla-dalla.Wannan tambayar tana haifar da wasu tambayoyi guda biyu: menene cikakkun bayanai kuma yaya kusanci?
Cikakken bayani game da hatsin da ke yin karfe shine amsar farko.Lokacin da aka samar da ƙarfe a cikin masana'antar farko, ba ya yin sanyi cikin babban taro tare da dukiya ɗaya.Yayin da karfe ya yi sanyi, kwayoyinsa suna yin siffa mai maimaitawa (crystals), kamar yadda dusar ƙanƙara ke tasowa.Bayan samuwar lu'ulu'u, an haɗa su cikin ƙungiyoyi da ake kira hatsi.Yayin da hatsi suka yi sanyi, suna girma, suna samar da dukan takardar ko farantin.Girman hatsi yana tsayawa lokacin da ƙwayar ƙarfe ta ƙarshe ta shanye da hatsi.Wannan duk yana faruwa ne akan matakin da ba a iya gani ba, tare da matsakaicin matsakaicin ƙwayar ƙarfe yana kusan 64 microns ko inci 0.0025 a faɗin.Duk da yake kowace hatsi tana kama da na gaba, ba iri ɗaya ba ne.Sun bambanta dan kadan da juna a girman, daidaitawa, da abun ciki na carbon.Abubuwan mu'amala tsakanin hatsi ana kiran iyakokin hatsi.Lokacin da karfe ya gaza, alal misali saboda tsagewar gajiya, ya kan yi kasala a iyakokin hatsi.
Yaya kusancin ku don ganin ɓangarorin ɓangarorin?Girman girman idon mutum sau 100 ko sau 100 ya wadatar.Duk da haka, kawai kallon danyen karfe zuwa ikon 100th ba ya da yawa.Ana shirya samfurori ta hanyar goge samfurin da kuma shafa saman saman tare da acid, yawanci nitric acid da barasa, wanda ake kira nitric acid etching.
Yana da hatsi da lattice na ciki wanda ke ƙayyade ƙarfin tasiri, MYS, UTS, da kuma elongation wanda karfe zai iya jurewa kafin gazawar.
Matakan ƙera ƙarfe kamar zafi da sanyi tsiri mirgina danniya zuwa tsarin hatsi;idan kullum suna canza siffar, wannan yana nufin cewa damuwa ya lalata hatsi.Sauran matakan sarrafawa kamar jujjuya karfen cikin coils, kwancewa da wucewa ta cikin injin bututu (don samar da bututu da girman) suna lalata hatsin karfe.Zane mai sanyi na bututu a kan mandrel kuma yana ƙarfafa kayan aiki, kamar yadda matakan masana'anta ke yi kamar ƙarewar ƙarewa da lanƙwasa.Canje-canje a cikin tsarin hatsi ana kiransa dislocations.
Matakan da ke sama suna rage ductility na karfe, ikonsa na jure damuwa (yaga) damuwa.Karfe ya zama mai karye, wanda ke nufin cewa zai iya karyewa idan kun ci gaba da aiki da karfe.Elongation wani bangare ne na filastik (compressibility wani).Yana da mahimmanci a fahimci a nan cewa gazawar ta fi faruwa a cikin tashin hankali, kuma ba cikin matsawa ba.Karfe yana da juriya sosai ga damuwa saboda girman girman sa.Duk da haka, ƙarfe cikin sauƙi yana lalacewa a ƙarƙashin damuwa na matsawa - yana da wuyar gaske - wanda shine fa'ida.
Kwatanta wannan zuwa kankare, wanda yana da ƙarfin matsawa sosai amma ƙananan ductility.Wadannan kaddarorin sun saba wa karfe.Wannan shine dalilin da ya sa ake ƙara ƙarfafa simintin da ake amfani da shi don hanyoyi, gine-gine da tituna.Sakamakon shine samfurin da ke da ƙarfin kayan aiki guda biyu: karfe yana da ƙarfi a cikin tashin hankali kuma kankare yana da ƙarfi a cikin matsawa.
A lokacin hardening, ductility na karfe yana raguwa, kuma taurinsa yana ƙaruwa.Wato yana taurare.Dangane da halin da ake ciki, wannan na iya zama fa'ida, amma kuma yana iya zama hasara, kamar yadda taurin yayi daidai da brittleness.Wato, ƙarfin ƙarfe, ƙarancin ƙarfinsa kuma saboda haka yana iya yin kasala.
A wasu kalmomi, kowane mataki na tsari yana buƙatar wasu ductility na bututu.Yayin da ake sarrafa sashin, sai ya yi nauyi, kuma idan ya yi nauyi sosai, to a ka'ida ba shi da amfani.Tauri yana da karye, kuma bututun da ba su da ƙarfi suna fuskantar gazawa yayin amfani.
Shin masana'anta suna da zaɓuɓɓuka a wannan yanayin?A takaice, eh.Wannan zaɓi yana daɗaɗawa, kuma kodayake ba daidai ba ne na sihiri, yana da kusan sihiri kamar yadda zai iya zama.
A cikin sauƙi, annealing yana kawar da duk tasirin tasirin jiki akan karafa.A cikin tsari, ƙarfe yana zafi da zafi zuwa damuwa ko recrystallization zafin jiki, wanda ya haifar da kawar da raguwa.Don haka, tsarin a wani ɓangare ko gaba ɗaya yana dawo da ductility, ya danganta da takamaiman zafin jiki da lokacin da aka yi amfani da shi a cikin tsarin cirewa.
Gyara da sanyaya sarrafawa yana haɓaka haɓakar hatsi.Wannan yana da fa'ida idan makasudin shine a rage taguwar kayan, amma rashin sarrafa hatsi na iya sassauta ƙarfe da yawa, yana mai da shi mara amfani don amfanin da aka yi niyya.Dakatar da aiwatar da annealing wani abu ne kusan sihiri.Quenching a daidai zafin jiki tare da madaidaicin madaidaicin madaidaicin lokaci da sauri ya dakatar da tsari kuma ya dawo da kaddarorin karfe.
Ya kamata mu yi watsi da ƙayyadaddun taurin?a'a.Abubuwan da ke da ƙarfi suna da mahimmanci, da farko, a matsayin jagora don ƙayyade halaye na bututun ƙarfe.Taurin ma'auni ne mai amfani kuma ɗaya daga cikin kaddarorin da yawa waɗanda yakamata a ƙayyade lokacin yin odar kayan tubular kuma a bincika bayan an karɓa (wanda aka rubuta don kowane jigilar kaya).Lokacin da ake amfani da gwajin taurin azaman ma'aunin gwaji, dole ne ya kasance yana da ƙimar ma'auni masu dacewa da iyakokin sarrafawa.
Koyaya, wannan ba gwajin gaskiya bane na wucewa (karɓa ko ƙi) na kayan.Baya ga taurin, masana'antun yakamata su duba jigilar kaya daga lokaci zuwa lokaci don tantance wasu kaddarorin da suka dace kamar MYS, UTS, ko ƙaramar elongation, dangane da aikace-aikacen bututu.
Wynn H. Kearns is responsible for regional sales for Indiana Tube Corp., 2100 Lexington Road, Evansville, IN 47720, 812-424-9028, wkearns@indianatube.com, www.indianatube.com.
An ƙaddamar da Tube & Pipe Journal a cikin 1990 a matsayin mujallar farko da aka sadaukar don masana'antar bututun ƙarfe.A yau, ya kasance bugu na masana'antu kawai a Arewacin Amurka kuma ya zama mafi amintaccen tushen bayanai ga ƙwararrun tubing.
Cikakken damar dijital zuwa FABRICATOR yana samuwa yanzu, yana ba da sauƙi ga albarkatun masana'antu masu mahimmanci.
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